《简明法律英语写作(第三版)》第三章译介
作 者:Bryan A. Garner*

译 者:王硕、陈心悦、许新冉**
关于引言及第一章,参见:《简洁法律英语写作(第三版)》第一章译介
关于第二章,参见:《简洁法律英语写作(第三版)》第二章译介

第三章:斟酌字词

原则十二

原则十二:使用简明英语,摒弃法律行话。
(§12. Use plain English, not legalese.)

尽可能使用简练的语言。在保证语法正确的同时,还应该摈弃不必要的行话术语。每个行业都会有自己的行话。「... observed a fungal infection of unknown etiology on the upper lower left extremity」(在左侧下肢上方发现病因不明的真菌感染)如果在一篇医生的门诊记录中看到这样的话,你应该不会很惊讶。对于一些医生,etiology(意思是「起因」)这个词与the patient is being given positive-pressure ventilatory support(与the patient is on a ventilator意思相同,即「病人正戴着呼吸机」)等诸如此类的表达方式一样,能更好地突出其医生的身份。

同理,警方的报告中常有这样的段落:

  • When Officer Galvin entered the lot, he observed the two males exiting the lot. He then initiated a verbal exchange with a female white subject, who stated that she had observed two male whites looking into vehicles. When she pointed out the subjects as the two male whites who had exited the lot previously, Officer Galvin promptly engaged in foot pursuit of them.
  • Galbin警官进入停车场时,观察到有两名男性正走出停车场。随后,他与一名白人女性交谈,后者称曾见到两名白人男性窥视车辆。她指出她所说的两名白人男性就是之前在停车场内的二人后,Galbin警官立即徒步追踪二人。

事件的经过被用直接的语言记录下来。对于警察而言,一些怪异的语言,如engaging in foot pursuit of(同running after,意为「追」),以及奇怪的用词,像observed(同saw,意为「看见」)、exiting(同leaving,意为「离开」)、initiated a verbal exchange(同spoke,意为「谈话」)、 stated(同said,意为「说」)、male whites(同white men,意为「白人男性」)等等,能更好地塑造一个「真」警察的形象。但是,这些词汇并不能使表达更精确,甚至也不能使表述变得更客观。

上述这种多余的术语在律师界也屡屡发生。对外行而言,这些行话显得有些愚蠢。

这是律所经常发送的令人讨厌的过时的免责声明电子邮件,其中充满了赘言和法律行话:

  • The foregoing message may, in whole or in part (including but not limited to any and all attachments hereto), contain confidential and/or privileged information. If you are not the addressee denominated in the foregoing recipient box designated for the purpose of such denomination, or you are not a person or persons authorized to receive this message for said recipient, then you must not use, copy, disclose, or take any action on said message or on any information hereinabove and/or hereinbelow. If said message has been received by you in error, please advise the sender forthwith by reply email and delete said message. Unintended transmission of said message shall not constitute a knowing waiver of attorney-client privilege or of any other privilege to which the unintentional sender may be entitled at law or in equity.
  • 上述邮件的全部或部分内容(包括但不限于任何及所有附件)可能包含机密和/或保密信息。如果您不是前述收件人信箱中指定的收件人,或者您不是经授权代表上述收件人接收本邮件的人员,则不得使用、复制、披露上述邮件或上述和/或下文中的任何信息,也不得对上述邮件或上述和/或下文中的任何信息采取任何行动。如果您收到的上述信息有误,请立即通过回复电子邮件告知发件人并删除上述信息。无意发送上述信息并不构成在知情的情况下放弃律师-当事人特权或无意发送者在法律或衡平法上可能享有的任何其他特权。这种荒唐的免责声明只会败坏发送人的声誉。
它可以变得更直接:
  • This message, and any attachments, may contain privileged or confidential information. Unless you’re the intended recipient, you cannot use it. If you’ve received this email by mistake, please reply to let us know and then permanently delete it. We don’t waive any privilege with misdelivered email.
  • 这份邮件及其附件可能含有机密或保密信息。若非指定收件人,不可使用本邮件中的信息。如果您误收本邮件,请回复告知我们并永久删除本邮件。我们不放弃无法邮件的免责权。
修订后的版本给人的印象非常不同。

初学法律时,你努力学习法律术语。你必须理解这些行话,因为法律文件里充斥着法律术语。不过,如果想要写好法律文书,你就需要避免使用这些行话。法律行话应该只成为你的阅读词汇,而非是写作词汇。

然而,究竟什么才是法律行话呢?它并非是一些无法化简的术语(比如,habeas corpus,「人身保护令」),而是一些能够从日常英语中找到同义词的「行话」。以下便是部分最极端的例子:

法律术语 平易英语
anent about
case sub judice this case
dehors the record outside the record
inter sese among themselves
motion for vacatur motion to vacate
sub suo periculo at one’s own peril

这些例子之所以极端,是因为已鲜有人用这些词。它们不会对你的写作带来太大的威胁,因为你会下意识地避免使用这些词。

而真正的危险来源于那些几乎出现在冗长法律文书每一段当中的行话。许多术语仅仅是表达如before, after, above, below等常见概念法律文体版本,并不能使表达更加精确。实际上,他们反而会让表达更模糊。下表中的建议替换词并不能在所有语境中适用,但通常情况下会更好。如果你觉得某个替换建议词用起来不合适,试试换个词。

虽然这些词对法学新生而言可能很陌生,但是对执业律师非常常见。列出下列词汇及其替换词的目的是避免使用过多法律行话。

需要避免使用的法律行话

法学术语 建议替换词
ab initio from the beginning, from the start
above-mentioned above, mentioned above
absent, prep. without, in the absence of, with no, even with no
aforementioned [omit], above, described above, these
aforesaid [omit], above, described above, these
arguendo for the sake of argument (in American English), during argument (in British English)
as at as of
before-mentioned above, mentioned above
below-mentioned discussed below
bring an action against sue
case at bar here, this case
consensus ad idem agreement; meeting of the minds
duly signed signed
duly witnessed witnessed
ex contractu contract, contractual
ex delicto tort, tortious
foregoing preceding, above, here (placed after noun), this
forthwith immediately, promptly, at once, right away
Further affiant sayeth naught [omit]
henceforth from now on
henceforward from now on
hereafter from now on, after, afterward
herein of this [affidavit, agreement, declaration, deed, etc.]—more words but also explicit and unambiguous
hereinbefore above, before
hereof of this [affidavit, agreement, declaration, deed, etc.]—more words but also explicit and unambiguous
hereunto [omit]
herewith [omit], with this [letter, note, etc.]
inasmuch as because, since
including but not limited to including
in extenso at length, in full
instant case here, this case
instanter immediately, instantly, promptly
in the event that if
in toto in total, in full, completely
in witness whereof [omit]—this language introduces a “testimonium clause” in old-fashioned contracts: unnecessary
Know all men by these presents [omit]—this phrase, meaning “hark” or “heads up,” is unnecessary
master and servant employer and employee
mutatis mutandis with the necessary changes, varied as the circumstances may require
not less than at least
Now comes the plaintiff [defendant, etc.] and files this [omit], The Plaintiff [Defendant, etc.] files this
pari passu equally, in equal amounts
pursuant to [§ 12, etc.] under [§ 12], [Section 12] requires
right, title, and interest entire interest
said (meaning the, that, or those) the, that, those
same (meaning it or them) it, them
seriatim one after another, in series
ss. [omit]
sub judice before the court
such (meaning the, that, or those) the, that, those
thenceforth then, from then on
thereafter after that
thereat there, at that place
thereby by that means
therefor (a different word from the ordinary therefore) for it, for them
therefrom from, after
therein in that [agreement, complaint, deed, or other document]
thereof of it, of them
thereto to that [place, thing, etc.]
thereunto to that [place, thing, etc.]
therewith with it, with that [agreement, complaint, deed, or other document]
the undersigned I, we, [the person signing]
to wit namely
true and correct accurate, correct
unto to
vel non or not—usually whether vel non can be replaced by whether
vendee buyer
vendor seller
viz. (an abbreviation for videlicet) namely
whensoever whenever
whereat where
Wherefore, premises considered For these reasons
wherein in which
whereof of which
whosoever whoever
within-named [omit]
witnesseth [omit]

下文的作者过于频繁地使用said, same和such,使文段遍得冗长:

  • The Undersigned hereby extends said lien on said property until said indebtedness and Loan Agreement/Note as so modified and extended has been fully paid, and agrees that such modification shall in no manner affect or impair said Loan Agreement/Note or the lien securing same and that said lien shall not in any manner be waived, the purpose of this instrument being simply to extend or modify the time or manner of payment of said Loan Agreement/Note and indebtedness and to carry forward the lien securing same, which is hereby acknowledged by the Undersigned to be valid and subsisting.
  • 签署人特此延长上述财产的上述留置权,直至上述债务和经如此修改和延长的贷款协议/票据得到全额偿付,并同意此类修改不得以任何方式影响或损害上述贷款协议/票据或为其提供担保的留置权,且不得以任何方式放弃上述留置权,本文书的目的仅仅是延长或修改上述贷款协议/票据和债务的偿付时间或方式,并延续为其提供担保的留置权,签署人特此承认留置权有效且持续存在。

给「签署人」一个名字,并稍作修改,上述令人费解的文段便可变成以下版本:

  • Williams extends the lien until the Note, as modified, has been fully paid. The modification does not affect any other terms of the Note or the lien, both of which otherwise remain in force.
  • 威廉延长留置权至修改后的票据已全部支付。修改不影响票据或留置权的任何其他条款,这两项条款仍然有效。
一些初出茅庐的律师拒绝使用上述文体,直至他们有一些执业经验才采纳这种写作风格。经验与智慧会让人们明白,拖沓啰嗦的法律文本远非必要。

尽早明白这个道理,你会少走很多年的弯路。

练习

基础练习
将下列文段转写成简明英语。
  • A prehearing conference was held on July 15, 2022, and the result of said conference was that Rawson was given an extension of time until August 6 to respond to Vicker’s motion. Rawson subsequently failed to file any response thereto.
  • In the event that any employee is requested to testify in any judicial or administrative proceeding, said party will give the company prompt notice of such request in order that the company may seek an appropriate protective order.
  • The court asks whether the plaintiff is guilty of unreasonable delay in asserting its rights. Such determination is committed to the trial court’s sound discretion. The emphasis is on the reasonableness of the delay, not the length of such delay.
  • Subsequent to the Bank’s dishonor and return of the forged check, the U.S. Attorney served the aforementioned subpoena upon the Bank and directed the Bank to deliver to his office forthwith, upon receipt, at any time and from time to time, any and all bank checks, cashier’s checks, and similar items stolen in the robbery that transpired on July 2, 2022.

中级练习
将下列文段转写成简明英语。
  • All modifications, interlineations, additions, supplements, and/or changes to this Contractual Amendment are subject to and conditioned upon a fully executed, signed, and dated acceptance, approval, and confirmation at Pantheon’s corporate headquarters.
  • An interpreter is needed if, after examining a witness, the court arrives at the conclusion that the witness is without the ability to understand and speak English at a sufficient level of proficiency to comprehend the proceedings in such a way as to assist counsel in the conduct of the case.
  • This letter shall confirm our understanding and agreement that if your loan application on the above- described property is approved, you shall 68 part one: principles for all legal writing occupy the same as your primary residence within thirty (30) days of the closing date. You are aware that if you shall fail to do so, such failure shall constitute a default under the Note and Security Instrument executed in connection with your loan, and upon occurrence of such default the full and entire amount of the principal and interest payable pursuant to said Note shall become immediately due and payable at the option of the holder thereof.
  • Pursuant to the provisions of §§ 3670, 3671, and 3672 of the Internal Revenue Code of the United States, notice is hereby given that there have been assessed under the Internal Revenue Code of the United States, against the following- named taxpayer, taxes (including interest and penalties) which after demand for payment thereof remain unpaid, and that by virtue of the above- mentioned statutes the amount (or amounts) of said taxes, together with penalties, interest, and costs that may accrue in addition thereto, is (or are) a lien (or liens) in favor of the United States upon all property and rights to property belonging to said taxpayer.

高级练习
找一篇已发表的、充斥着行话的法律文书。写一份长度在3页以内的简短的备忘录(memo),需要包含以下内容:(1)至少两段原文;(2)你修改的情况;(3)简述一下你这样修改的原因。如果可能,援引权威意见(比如用法指南,参见原则48)来作证你的修改。

从下列图书中选择两本,并用简明语言写出该书的摘要。
  • Mark Adler, Clarity for Lawyers: The Use of Plain English in Legal Writing (2d ed. 2007).
  • Rudolf Flesch, How to Write Plain English: A Book for Lawyers and Consumers (1979).
  • Joseph Kimble, Lifting the Fog of Legalese: Essays on Plain Language (2006).
  • David Mellinkoff, The Language of the Law (1963).
  • Peter M. Tiersma, Legal Language (2000).

原则十二的小结

  • 学会欣赏简明英语:所有还能化简的文本都是糟糕的;
  • 学着像律师一样思考的同时,别忘记上法学院前你是如何运用语言的;
  • 虽然必须学习法律行话,但是如果有日常同义词,就不要使用行话;
  • 学习不能化简为日常用语的术语(terms of art)和可以化简的法律行话(legalistic jargon)之间的区别。

原则十三

原则十三:警惕矫饰、官话和套话。
(§ 13. Be wary of pretension, officialese, and stiff formulas.)

某情景喜剧中的经典一集中,主人公(码头工人)决定给总统写一封信。他穿上西装三件套、刮了胡须、涂上发胶,非常有仪式感地坐在桌前,削了三根铅笔,然后开始写一封措辞过于正式的信函,里面充满了他在其他场合都不会用得到的短语。就差称呼总统为“至高无上无人超越的陛下”了。

很多人都会犯上文中的错误。人们必须写“重要”的东西时,语言往往会僵化。也许这就是为什么除了法律术语,律师写出的文本最大的问题是官方用语太多。官方用语与原则12中讨论的法律行话有点不同:法律行话与律师密切相关,而官方用语是所有行业文本生硬语言的特性。法律行业的许多人都频繁使用下表中“官话”项下所列的词汇。这些词汇并非在所有情况下都不可以使用,但是最好尝试使用“建议替换词”项下的词语替换。

需要避免使用的官话

官话 建议替换词
accede to allow, grant
accordingly so, therefore
acknowledge receipt of Thank you for [your letter]
additionally and, also
afford give
annex, vb. attach
annex, n. attachment
append attach
apprise inform, tell
approximately about, some
as a consequence of because of
ascertain find out, learn, discover, determine, establish
assist help
assistance help
asto about, of, by, for, in
attempt, vb. try
at this time now
cognizant aware
commence begin, start
consequently so, therefore, as a result
deem consider, treat as, think, find
demise death
demonstrate show
depart go, leave
desire want, wish
during the course of during
emoluments salary, pay
endeavor, vb. try
evince show
in circumstances where when, where
indicate suggest, say, show
individual person
initiate start, begin, set up
in light of the fact that given that
in order to to
in regard to about
in the event that if
location place
notwithstanding despite
notwithstanding the fact that although (past or present), even if (future)
numerous many
parameters guidelines, limits, boundaries, conditions
per annum yearly, per year
previous to before
prior to before
proceed go, go ahead
purchase, vb. buy
remuneration pay
reside live
subsequently later
subsequent to after
sufficient enough
transpire happen
utilization use
utilize use
尽管你希望使用上述词汇,但你应认识到,在你认为有利于取得有利结果的情况下表现出这种愿望,决不会有利于提高薪酬。因此,鉴于使用这种措辞不符合上述规定的范围,你在今后的职业生涯中应避免使用上述措辞。或者,如果在阅读本段之前已经养成这种习惯,则应立即停止。

Notwithstanding the fact that you are desirous of utilizing said vocables, you should nevertheless be cognizant that evincing such desire in circumstances where you deem it advantageous to proceed toward a propitious outcome will in nowise militate in favor of enhanced remuneration. Consequently, in light of the fact that utilization of this verbiage does not lie within the parameters hereinbefore set forth, during the course of your vocational endeavors you should conduct yourself henceforth so as to abstain from the aforesaid terminology. In the alternative, should such habit already have commenced prior to the perusal of this passage, you should henceforward cease and desist.

这段文本写起来很有趣,但仅限于玩笑。

严肃地讲,把仅仅几个“官话”词语短语串在一起,便会得到一个浮夸的句子。例如,Burton resided in Poughkeepsie for three years, but subsequently became married to an individual from Denver who indicated that she would prefer to depart Poughkeepsie and endeavor to locate employment at a location in the Denver area. 你能感受到这个句子有多糟糕吗?这样表述更好:After living in Poughkeepsie for three years, Burton married a Denver woman who wanted to live and work in Colorado.

有时为了显得正式,人们会采用上述文风。他们坐在办公桌旁,莫名认为这种文风更“专业”。如果你也这么想,请好好审视自己。停止正式文体需要华丽辞藻这样的想法。阅读下段文字,来源为某个大城市的出版物:It is our hope that this guide will be of significant assistance to you and will help ameliorate some of the frustrations that may transpire during the Building Permit process. It is of our utmost concern that your project will be reviewed in the most complete, timely, and expeditious fashion. We desire to provide you a service that is proactive and more importantly reliable. In the event that there are any other questions or further information that may not have received coverage in the present publication, please feel free to contact one of the Structural Plan Reviewers listed hereinbelow.

你可能不相信,但这段文字的作者是人类——某个不知道如何写出简明英语的人。此人更喜欢长单词,花哨、模糊的词汇,被动语态和流行语。

然而,看看当一个喜欢简单的词语、直接的语言、主动语态和正规(time-honored)词语的人来表达同样的想法时,会发生什么:We hope this guide makes getting your building permit easier. We want your project’s review to be fast, trouble-free, and reliable. For answers to any questions, please call one of these structural-plan reviewers: [a list follows].

差别真大。注意阅读这两段文字时,你的注意力会发生什么变化。事实上,试着再读一遍这两段话,思考一下你的读后感。第一段实际上传达的是“我们不关心你”的想法——即使是在声称“我们关心你”的时候。这就是胡言乱语(华而不实的晦涩语言)的后果。

即使你在一家大公司工作,你也应该努力让自己听起来像一个有思想的人,而不是一台机器。你不应该像一个自视甚高的官僚或不近人情的律师,而应该像一个懂得如何与人沟通的人性化思想家。以对话的形式运用文字。

在书信和电子邮件中,许多常见的格式(其中大部分都是冗余的)会让你听起来像个机器。请学习它们的替代词,见下表。

需要避免使用的常见格式

别这样 要这样
as per our telephone conversation of today’s date as we discussed this morning
at your earliest convenience as soon as you can; Might Thursday be possible?
deem it necessary find it necessary; think you need
Enclosed please find Enclosed are; Here are pursuant to your instructions
Thank you for your courtesy and cooperation regarding this matter. Thank you.
Thank you in advance for your courtesy and cooperation in this regard. Please do not hesitate to contact me if you should have any questions regarding this request. Thank you. If you have any questions, please call.
we are in receipt of we’ve received; thank you for [your letter]

要写出有效的商务信函,就要简洁而不唐突,真诚而不乏味,亲切而不轻浮。要简明扼要、直奔主题,并以清晰的摘要作为开头。

在一个越来越多的文字自动生成的世界里,听起来像一个有血有肉、掌握熟语的人比以往任何时候都更有价值。

练习

基础练习
阅读H.W. Fowler的Dictionary of Modern English Usage (Oxford, 1965)第二版中的“formal words”, “genteelisms”和“working and stylish words”条目。写一份三段式报告,总结Fowler的观点。如果你是写作小组或班级成员,请将报告分发给每位同同学。准备在下次会议上讨论你的观点。

中级练习
阅读Eric Partridge的Usage and Abusage(任何版本)一书中的“Officialese, Journalese, Commercialese”章节。写一份三段式报告,总结Partridge的观点。在结尾总结你对他观点的采信程度。如果你是写作小组或班级成员,请将报告分发给每位同同学。准备在下次会议上讨论你的观点。

高级练习
在律师事务所的网站上,找到一段至少 150 字的晦涩段落,将其大幅简化。如果你是写作小组或写作班的一员,将前后版本的副本分发给每位同事。准备好讨论你的修改意见。

读Sir Ernest Gowers所写的The Complete Plain Words一书,并撰写至少七段的读书笔记。

原则十三的小结

  • 不要使用浮夸的词汇(如,“终止电话交流”改为“挂电话”),官话(“保持视觉交流”改为“观看”),或者委婉语(impaired改为drunk);
  • 如果你在生活中不会使用某种说话方式,就不要写出这样的句子,因此不要用Enclosed please find 或We are in receipt of;
  • 明白写出自然的文本远非容易;
  • 将 pursuant to, as per, prior to, at this point, in time等短语从你的词汇库中删除;
  • 问自己这个由乔治·奥威尔提出的问题:“你说过什么本可以避免的丑话吗?”
  • 保持文章简明直接。

原则十四

原则十四:简化词组的构成——注意of词组的使用。
(§ 14. Simplify wordy phrases — especially those containing of.)

逐词组精简句子时,你会发现有些词组在法律文书中反复出现,使文章变得臃肿啰嗦。每一个这样的词组都有一个对应的日常用词:

需要避免使用的啰嗦词组

啰嗦的短语 正常表达
an adequate number of enough
a number of many, several
a sufficient number of enough
at the present time now
at the time when when
at this point in time now
during such time as while
during the course of during
for the reason that because
in the event that if
in the near future soon
is able to can
notwithstanding the fact that although
on a daily basis daily
on the ground that because
prior to before
subsequent to after
the majority of most
until such time as until
你应当记住上面所列的内容,特别是右边列出的正常表达方式。

除此之外,要想提高写作水平还应该培养起慎用of这个词的习惯,因为这个词通常都是冗长累赘的标志。尽管这样的判断方式似乎有些武断,但是这确是行之有效的方法:留意每一处of,看看它们是不是引出了一个啰嗦的结构。你也许会惊讶地发现,在很多情况都会是如此。当使用电脑编辑时,试着去关注“...of...”的结构并看一下你可以删掉多少毫无意义的of。将of的使用减少50%左右能大大提高你文章的可读性和生动性。只需要很少的经验,你便可以对三到四个经常出现的问题进行修改:

首先,你需要删掉一些啰嗦的of﹣介词短语: image.png

尽管改动很小,删除of a corporation却能让句子明显更加流畅。这样的修改(可以被称为“去掉不必要的of 结构”)经常使用在对如the provision of 和 the terms and conditions of之类词组的调整中。不要写“an agency’s actions are subject to the provisions of the 2021 legislation”,而是简单地写成“subject to the 2021 legislation.” 词组“the provisions of”在此没有任何意义。

第二,有时候你需要将 of﹣短语改成所有格形式。比如: image.png

这很容易,而且这样的修改还能够让结尾更加有力(参见原则十一)。

第三,你有时还需要用形容词或副词代替 of﹣介词短语。比如: image.png

虽然我们会在最后一个词组中保留一个of,但是需要删掉另一个,并把California 作为形容词使用。

最后便是对文字本身的关注,通过修改使之更流畅: image.png

这样的调整是修改-ion结尾的词的常用方法,如: image.png

将effectuation改成effectuate的同时,一个多余的介词被删掉了,句子也更简练了(参见原则十五)。

有选择地删除of是极为有效的办法,水平极高的作家也会从中受益匪浅。

练习

基础练习
改写下列句子,尽可能减少介词数量。
  • Jenkins knew of the existence of the access port of the computer.
  • This Court did not err in issuing its order of dismissal of the claims of Plaintiff.
  • Courts have identified a number of factors as relevant to a determination of whether the defendant’s use of another’s registered trademark is likely to cause a state of confusion, mistake, or deception.
  • One way in which a private party can act preemptively to protect the enforceability of the rest of the provisions of a contract, in the face of one void provision, is to insert a severability clause.
  • Any waiver of any of the provisions of this Agreement by any party shall be binding only if set forth in an instrument signed on behalf of that party.

中级练习
改写下列句子,尽可能减少介词数量。
  • Henry II had genius of a high order, which never manifested itself more clearly than in his appreciation of the inevitability of the divergence of the paths of crime and of tort, and in his conception of crimes as offenses against the whole community.
  • The recognition of the propriety of a court’s overruling its own decisions places those decisions on the plane of merely persuasive authority and causes our theory of judicial precedent to be substantially like the theory held on the continent of Europe.
  • Penfold had no knowledge of the amount of money paid— and could not have had knowledge of this— in advance of Penfold’s review of its financial position in 2010. Thus, Penfold’s profit-sharing is neither deserving of nor subject to the protections of Title III.
  • In the case of R.E. Spriggs Co. v. Adolph Coors Co., 94 Cal. App. 3d 419 (Ct. App. 1979), the Court of Appeal of California addressed the estoppel effect of a cease-and-desist order. The court was of the view that the trial court erred in failing to apply the doctrine of collateral estoppel, since the factual issue in dispute had been litigated and decided in an earlier case involving the enforcement of an FTC cease-and-desist order.
  • One or both of the aspects of the function of the court must suffer. Either consideration of the merits of the actual controversy must yield to the need of detailed formulation of a precedent that will not embarrass future decision, or careful formulation must give way to the demand for study of the merits of the case at hand.

高级练习
找到一篇发表了的文段对其进行修改,删掉里面一半以上的of。先打印出原告,然后再用笔直接在稿子上修改。如果你参加了写作班或者写作小组,为每个同学准备一份你的作业。

原则十四的小结

  • 学会自动替换常见的冗余短语:March 2024而非March of 2024; question whether而非question of whether; that big a deal而非that big of a deal; indicates而非is indicative of;
  • 只要听起来自然,就用所有格替代of-短语;
  • 使用电脑写作时,检索“...of...”,看看有哪些可以删除的of引导的短语。

原则十五

原则十五:避免使用僵尸词汇——尤其是能转化为动词的-ion结尾的名词
(§15. Avoid zombie nouns–especially -ion words that you can turn into verbs.)

除了be动词、被动语态(见原则九)和of词组、介词延伸(见原则十四),抽象名词也会削弱句子的力度。他们通常被成为“名词化”,但更生动的表述是“僵尸名词”。常见的僵尸名词通常以-ion结尾。要表达某人违反法律,请写成someone has violated the law,而不是someone was in violation of the law;要说某事表明了某事,请写成something illustrates something else,而不是it provides an illustration of it;要说一名律师决定为被告辩护,要写成a lawyer has decided to represent the defendant,而不是the lawyer has made the decision to undertake the representation of the defendant;要说一方会向另一方做出赔偿,要说one party will indemnify the other,而不是the party will furnish an indemnification to the other.

在上面的例子里,每句话都有一种冗长抽象的表达和一种简短精准的表达。冗长的表达使用没有力度的动词和用-ion结尾的抽象名词。而较短的句子则使用表意明确的单个动词。法律文书里到处都是以-ion结尾的名词,读起来松散由啰嗦:

啰嗦的表达 简短的表达
are in mitigation of mitigate
conduct an examination of examine
make accommodation for accommodate
make adjustments to adjust
make provision for provide for
provide a description of describe
submit an application apply
take into consideration consider
当然,如果你所指的是“调解”或者“谈判”的过程,那么你必须用mediation和negotiation。但是如果你在第一稿中写的是the mediation of the claim by the parties(在斡旋中的双方),那么请你作如下的修改:the parties’ mediating the claim.

为什么要修改-ion结尾的名词呢?有如下三点原因:

  • 将它们替换成实义动词,你往往能避免使用无意义的动词(见原则十一);
  • 在修改的过程中,你能去掉句中不必要的介词,尤其是of(见原则十四);
  • 通过使用“某人做某事”的句型,你会让你的句子更生动。
做出这些修改的最基本原理是确保准确性。改掉句中的僵尸名词,你的文章就不那么抽象了。读者会更容易弄清你文章的内容。

如果你对此还有疑惑,请对比上一段最后一句话和这句话:“After the transformation of nominalizations, the text will have fewer abstractions; readers’ capability for visualization of the discussion will undergo enhancement.”

警惕以-ion结尾的名词,同时也要注意其它造成僵尸名词的后缀:

  • - al(order a deferral of变成defer),
  • - ence(have a preference for变成prefer),
  • - ity(reveal the identity变成identify),
  • - ment(make an amendment to变成amend),
  • 有时甚至还包括-sis(make a analysis变成analyze)。
如果可以,别用啰嗦的表达。

练习

基础练习
改写下列语段,只留下一、两个以-ion结尾的名词,看看它们是否真的有必要?
  • An interested party may make an application for a modification or revocation of an antidumping order (or termination of a suspension agreement) in conjunction with an annual administrative review. A revocation application will normally receive no consideration by the board unless there have been no sales at less than fair value for a period of at least three consecutive years.
  • In analyzing the ADA claim, the court noted that the decedent’s termination and the reduction in AIDS benefits by the company occurred before the ADA became effective. Plaintiff nonetheless made the allegation that maintaining the limitation on AIDS benefits beyond the effective date of the ADA — in effect discrimination between plan members with AIDS and members without AIDS — constituted a violation of the general rule of Title I.
  • The determination that reasonable grounds exist for the revocation of parole should first be made by someone directly involved in the case. Yet we need make no assumptions in arriving at the conclusion that this preliminary evaluation, and any recommendations resulting therefrom, should be in the hands of someone not directly involved.

中级练习
改写下列句子,减少其中以-ion结尾的名词的数量。
  • In the event of termination of this Agreement by Sponsor before expiration of the project period, Sponsor must pay all costs that the University has accrued as of the date of termination.
  • The federal district courts have discretion over supervision of the discovery process, the imposition of sanctions for discovery violations, and evidentiary rulings.
  • Although compliance with the terms of the Act should provide Hince some protection from state or local actions, the actual degree of protection remains uncertain because of the absence of any prior judicial interpretation of the Act.
  • Any violation of the terms of probation established by the Board will result in revocation of VanTech’s authority to conduct itself as a publicutility operation.
  • In addition, the imposition of punitive damages here would be a violation of the constitutional provision containing the prohibition of ex post facto laws.

高级练习
找一篇已经发表的法律文书,其中至少包含三个需要修改的以-ion结尾的名词。把原文连同引注一起抄下来,然后再把修改后的段落写在后面。如果你加入了写作小组或者写作班,请把修改前后的文稿拿给你每一位同学看,并准备好和大家一起讨论。

检索以有效写作为主题的文章中,为减少以-ion结尾的名词的使用找到更多论据。写作权威们都用什么术语来描述这些词?

原则十五的小结

  • 当你看到从动词变来的抽象名词时——比如,以-ion结尾的名词——尝试更改措辞。(别用provide protection to,而要用protect);
  • 如果没有更加简洁的替代性表达或者改述,就保留以-ion结尾的词。(nation, corporation, prescription drugs, etc.);
  • 注意,你经常会同时省略be动词和介词(例如,is in violation of变成violations)。

原则十六

原则十六:尽量用一个单词表意,避免使用双式词(Doublet)或由三个同义词构成词组的表达方式(Triplet)。
(§16. Avoid doublets and triplets.)

法律文书向来以充满赘余著称,其中有很多历史悠久的冗词:
    转让:alienate, transfer, and convey(用transfer就够了)
    应付的、到期的:due and payable(用due就够了)
    遗赠:give, devise, and bequeath(用give就够了)
    保证赔偿:indemnify and hold harmless(用indemnify就够了)
    遗嘱:last will and testament(用will就够了)
以上列举的只是部分。或许你听过这样的解释,在法律英语成型之前,这些同义词的连用是为了便于翻译拉丁语、法语和昂格鲁-撒克逊语。但这是很不准确但历史解释。 但即使这个解释是正确的,当代律师也没必要这么写。

古老的双式词或由三个同义词构成词组的表达方式在法律上没有必要,它们还会导致思维混乱。因为法庭认为文书中没有一个词是多余的,因此必须给每个词以意义。律师不应该在自己的文书中掺入不必要的词汇。文书在于以简要的语言传达意旨,而不是篇幅大小。

为了避免不必要的重复,请遵守下列规则:如果一个词包含其它词的意思,那就单独使用这个词。更准确地说,如果一个词能概括一个大类,而其他词都是大类中的具体分支,那就可以只使用那个具有概括性的词。所以请单独使用“产权负担”(encumbrances),而不能同时使用“留置权”(liens)和“产权负担”(encumbrances),否则会让人误以为留置权不是产权负担的一种。如果两个词是同义词(比如convey和transfer都表示传递),只选择一个更契合上下文的词。

那么“免于受罚”(indemnify)和“免责”(hold harmless)有什么区别吗?大多数国家一直以来都认为没有区别。但有些国家认为存在区别:由于必须给每个词赋予含义,因此法庭捏造了这两个词的区别。想要了解这个有些令人遗憾的故事的完整版,请参见Garner’s Dictionary of Legal Usage (3d ed. 2011)。

这里还需要进一步思考。在一些情况下,冗词或者看上去冗杂的词汇已经成为一种惯例,以至于一些律师担心,如果把这些冗词删掉,是不是会表意不清。比如,放弃诉讼权利的文书篇幅一般非常长。在和解文书中也充斥着长篇累牍的词语。例如,一家大律所在放弃诉讼权利文书中宣称一方当事人将release, remit, remise, surrender and discharged(放弃)对另一方当事人及其heirs, executors, administrators, predecessors, successors, assigns, assignees, insurers, employees, agents, officers, directors, shareholders, subsidiaries, parent companies, insureds, and insurers(继承人、执行人、管理人、前任、继承人、受让人、受让人、保险公司、雇员、代理人、高级职员、董事、股东、子公司、母公司、被保险人和保险公司)的所有claims, causes of action, rights, actions, rights of action, suits, debts, obligations, liabilities, damages (including but not limited to actual, consequential, and punitive), losses, charges, costs, sums of money, reckonings, bonds, bills, specialties, trespasses, proceedings, judgments, turnover orders, attorney fees, promises, variances, executions, and demands of any description whatsoever.(权利、诉因、权利、诉讼、诉讼权利、债务、义务、责任、损害赔偿(包括但不限于实际的、结果性的和惩罚性的)、损失、费用、费用、款项、计算、债券、账单、特殊情况、侵权、诉讼、判决、成交令、律师费、承诺、差异、执行和任何描述的要求。)这种措辞试图表明此次放弃覆盖内容广泛,是一种通用的措辞。

但这会产生三个问题。

第一,在这种长篇累牍的表达里,有些词百分之九十九的律师从来都不知道,也懒得去查——比如放弃(remise)和书面合同(specialty)。remise可以简单地表达为release,它们是同义词。紧接着产生地一个问题是:对于律师来说,在发送的文件里写些他们根本不认识的词有什么意义呢?法律不应该是一门所谓的“博学的职业”吗?如果那些多余的单词没有任何意义,那我们为什么要用呢?

第二,很多词根本没有可适用性。上述条款所属的文件是公司的一篇免责声明,而公司不可能有继承人或遗嘱执行人。因为只有自然人死后才会产生继承人和遗嘱执行人。此外,“assigns”和“assignees”也只是对“受让人”的不同表达。

第三,上述文段并未进行全面的罗列。比如,“权利选择”(choses in action)就不在其列。此外还有“没收”(forfeitures)、“赔偿”(reparations)、“偿还”(repayments)、“恢复原状”(restitutions)、“和解”(quittances)、“酬金”(remunerations)和“报酬”(guerdon)也都未被罗列?(如果你不认识这些词,可以去查一下。)这些词是否是被有意删除了呢?“幸福赔偿”是否是故意不包含在内的?为什么明确提到了实际损害赔偿(actual damages)、后果性损害赔偿(consequential damages)和惩罚性损害赔偿(punitive damage),而没有提到交易利益损害赔偿(bargain damages)、补偿性损害赔偿(compensatory damages)、酌情损害赔偿(discretionary damages)、情绪损害赔偿(emotional distress damages)、增强损害赔偿(enhanced damages)、未来损害赔偿(future damages)、违约损害赔偿(liquidated damages)以及所有其他类型的损害赔偿?

执着于省略一些东西会变得愚蠢,弄巧成拙。但如果你们说得太过详尽,就会引起法官的注意。说得太过简略也是一样。你不能简单地断言一方“不会因为任何事情起诉另一方”。

一名优秀律师所做的就是遵循上面所说的规则:如果一个词能概括一个大类,而其他词都是大类中的具体分支,那就可以只使用那个具有概括性的词。只有在你确定需要新增含义的时候,再增加新的词汇。不要犹豫,直截了当地说出你的观点,向读者传达你的意思:“双方希望本和解书是广泛且全面的,并在法律允许的最大范围内放弃所有现存和潜在的权利。”

同一律所的不同律师可以将上面所示的和解书写成不同的形式。内容如下:一方当事人放弃以下另一方及其所有administrators, predecessors, successors, assigns, insurers, employees, agents, officers, directors, shareholders, subsidiaries, parent companies, insureds, and insurers(管理人、前任、继任者、受让人、保险公司、雇员、代理人、高级职员、董事、股东、子公司、母公司、被保险人和保险公司)的所有claims, actions, debts, damages, losses, charges, judgments, and demands of any kind(权利、诉讼、债务、损害、损失、指控、判决和任何形式的要求)。

简而言之,其中仍然罗列了很多单词,但含义重复的词削减到了最少。起草者展现出了更渊博的知识和更敏锐的头脑。和所有事情一样,我们自己判断选择最好的措辞。这需要你对此多加思考,而不仅仅是照搬之前的形式,不顾用词是否合适。

练习

基础练习
修改下列句子,在不改变原意的前提下删去冗余部分。
  • Licensee will perform the work in compliance with all applicable laws, rules, statutes, ordinances, and codes.
  • A party may not challenge a witness’s truthfulness and veracity by the introduction or injection of extrinsic evidence relating to matters not already in the record.
  • If the bailee fails, refrains, or refuses to perform any obligation under this agreement, the bailor may, at its option, perform the obligation of the bailee and charge to, bill, or otherwise recover from the bailee the cost of this performance.
  • Seller must cooperate with and assist Buyer in this process, without bearing the costs or expenses associated therewith.

中级练习
在你的房屋租赁合同、抵押合同或车辆贷款合同这类私人合同中找到两处使用双式词的例子。在不改变原意的前提下(你自己认为如此即可),对其进行修改。如果你参加了写作班或写作小组,请为每个同学准备一份修改前后的文稿。

高级练习
从主题是法律语言的论著中,找到至少三个关于双式词起源和现代使用的讨论,然后对此写一篇小型读书报告(字数在300到500左右)。

原则十六的小结

  • 注意法律英语中的双式词,想想它们是否都有必要。
  • 为了确定它们是否必要,你必须在历史词典或法律用法指南中做一些基础检索。如果是在线上做检索,就得对其模糊的确定性保持怀疑态度。用批判性思维审视你所检索的材料。
  • 如果一个词涵盖了其它一连串词(近义词)的意思,就不要把它们当作平行词汇来使用。记住这个反例:留置权(liens)和产权负担(encumbrances)。
  • 请记住,法院倾向于默认文书中没有一个字是多余的。你得避免将含义相同的词汇解释成不同的意思。

原则十七

原则十七:提及当事人和具体单位时,请直呼其名。绝不要使用以“or”或者“ee”结尾的词。
(§17. Refer to people and companies by name. Never use corresponding terms ending in -or and -ee.)

想象一下,如果世界上所有的小说家、剧作家和编剧都用“主角”(Protagonist)和“反派”(Antagonist)为主要人物命名会变成什么样?故事肯定会变得冗长拖沓。

然而,法律作者却习惯于用“原告”(Plantiff)和“被告”(Defendant),“上诉人”(Appellee)和“承租人”(Lessee)来称呼文中出现的人物。这个习惯有悖于写作规范。

你完全可以直接称呼当事人的姓名,比如Chang、Mclnerny或Williams。或者直接把单位写成“银行”(the bank)、“公司”(the company)或“大学”(the university)。(如果你担心这样不够妥当,也可以把这些词的首字母大写,比如“本银行”(the Bank), “本公司”(the Company), “本大学”(the University)。具体参见第18小结。)然后就要确保故事情节的通顺了。但要避免把笼统称谓写成当事人姓名。

正如我们所知,大多数人并不把自己视为“诉讼参加人”(intervenors)、“抵押人”(mortgagors)、“债务人”(obligor),“女检察官”(prosecutrixes)之类的身份。而遇到这样的写法,律师往往需要再将这些成为“翻译”成当事人的姓名,因此最好提前就对当事人直呼其名。

诉讼律师常提起一个自认为不错的策略:把自己的当事人具像化为某个具体的人,如称呼他为Johnson,而称呼对方当事人为被告(Defendant)。这样的策略在大多数情况下其实是行不通的:它让你的文章只有一半是清楚明白的,只算得上一个蹩脚的修辞伎俩。此外,如果对方当事人存在过错,读者会更容易将过错和具体的当事人(如Preiffer)联系在一起,而不是笼统的称谓——被告(Defendant)。 不过优先对当事人直呼其名也有两个例外:(1)当你浅析一个没参与的案子时,直接称呼当事人为原告(the plaintiff)和被告(defendant)是没问题的;(2)当多方当事人名称相同时,单独对一方当事人直呼其名会造成混淆。这时候你可以称呼其为“原告”(Plantiff)和“被告”(Defendent)。除此之外,请用具体的名字称呼你的委托人和对方当事人。

称呼当事人时使用“or”或“ee”结尾的词,是糟糕交易型文书的典型特征:indemnitor(补偿人)/indemnitee(受偿人),licensor(许可人)/licensee(被许可人),mortgagaor(抵押人)/mortgagaee(抵押权人),obligor(债务人)/obligee(债权人)等等。这样写有三个弊端。一来,质疑结尾不同的两个字母来区分双方当事人的写法,会引起排版错误、误读和混淆。二来,这会让文书看上去是从格式手册上复制下来的;并且,使用乏味的笼统称谓会让读者和你自己更难集中注意力。因此,你在检查自己的文书时,更有可能犯大量错误。 无论在准备诉状、摘要还是交易相关的文件的时候,你最好还是对当事人直呼其名。当然,尽管在处理交易事务时,有时不可避免地需要使用上述术语——如Licensee(被许可人)。但绝对不能将“or”和“ee”结尾的词成对使用,否则会造成混淆。

练习

基础练习
从简易判决书摘要中改写以下段落。用名称替换过程标签。假设搬家人(您的客户)是Pine National,原告是Peter Foster。毫无疑问,您会看到需要进行其他编辑,因此请尽可能地改进样式。
Movant has conclusively established that Plaintiff did not initiate this lawsuit against Movant until after the expiration of the applicable limitations period. Plaintiff does not dispute this. Instead, Plaintiff seeks to avoid application of the limitations bar by (1) asserting that this is a case of misnomer, in which case limitations would be tolled, and (2) asserting that, under Enserch Corp. v. Parker, 794 S.W.2d 2, 4– 5 (Tex. 1990), factual issues exist as to whether Movant was prejudiced by the late filing. Yet the evidence before the Court establishes as a matter of law that this is a case of misidentification (which does not toll limitations), not one of misnomer. Further, Plaintiff has not responded with any proof of a basis for tolling limitations under the equitable exception to the statute of limitations described in Enserch. The exception is inapplicable under the facts before this Court, and, therefore, prejudice or the lack thereof to Movant is not a relevant inquiry. Plaintiff’s claims against Movant are barred by limitations as a matter of law.

中级练习
找一篇使用笼统称谓(比如抵押人/mortgagor和受押人/mortgagee)致使全文变得啰嗦繁琐的法律文书。将其中的一到两段改写。如果你参加了写作班或写作小组,请为每个同学准备一份修改前后的文稿。

高级练习
你可以从主题为摘要或者合同写作的著作中找到支持或反对对当事人直呼其名的权威意见。如果你参加了写作班或写作小组,准备好与同学们探讨你的发现。

原则十七的小结

  • 为了提升文章的生动性,按照以下顺序称呼当事人:首先用当事人的姓名(如Kilsby Corporation和Barnett),其次用表示其地位的术语(如company和employee),最后再用笼统称谓(plaintiff和defendant)。
  • 别对已知的当事人使用笼统称谓。
  • 只有在讨论与本案不同的案件(如判例)时,或者必须以复数形式使用笼统称谓(如在集体诉讼中)时,才使用对当事人使用笼统称谓。
  • 不要使用“or”或“ee”结尾的词(如licensor/licensee),它们会引起混淆、招致笔误,且乏味无趣。

原则十八

原则十八:仅在必要时才用缩写,且别用不常见的缩写。
(§ 18. Use shorthand names only when you must. Shun unfamiliar acronyms.)

想象一下,报纸上文章的开头是这样的:A powerful Russian industrialist named Mikhail Khodorkovsky (hereinafter “the Industrialist” or “Khodorkovsky”), whose empire (hereinafter “the Khodorkovsky Empire”) is under investigation in the money-laundering inquiry (hereinafter “the Inquiry”) at the Bank of New York (hereinafter “the Bank”), said yesterday that a large part of the billions of dollars (hereinafter “Russian Capital”) moved through the Bank was controlled by Russian officials (hereinafter “the Officials”) who used the Khodorkovsky Empire to protect their fortunes by shipping the Russian Capital abroad before Russian markets collapsed last year (hereinafter “the Russian Collapse”).

虽然这很荒谬,且没有专业记者会这么做,但很多律师都喜欢这种风格:Gobel Mattingly (“Mattingly”), shareholder on behalf of Allied Ready Mix Company, Incorporated (“Allied”) and Jefferson Equipment Company, Incorporated (“Jefferson”), has appealed from a nunc pro tunc order (the “Nunc Pro Tunc Order”) of the Jefferson Circuit Court (the “Court Below”) in this stockholder derivative action (“the Action”).

即使没有hereinafters,这也很滑稽。其中只涉及Mattingly、Allied和Jefferson三个法律主体。如果你能恰当地讲述这件事,任一读者都知道你说的是什么命令、诉讼和相关法庭。现在是,大量括号妨碍了理解。

因此,如果你不应该死记硬背、机械式地使用括号式速记,那么你什么时候该用呢?答案就是当你确实需要时,而这一般只有两种情况。首先,如果你需要将General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade缩写为GATT(你可能会这么做,因为该缩写已经非常成熟),那么需要这么写:Signed originally in 1948, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) promotes international trade by lowering import duties.这样,遇到GATT的读者就不会感到困惑。其次,如果你正在处理某个案子,其中两个或以上的实体具有令人困惑的相似名称,缩写式引用会消除混乱:Seattle Credit Corporation (Seattle Credit) has sued Seattle Credit Engineering Corporation (SC Engineering) for trademark infringement.尽管这些情况时有发生,但并不常见。注意,我们略去了不必要的引号:括号足以表明我们正在处理缩写。

另一个相关问题是不常用的缩写。确实,有些缩写是可以的。人们不会对ATM cards, FAA regulations, GM cars, IBM computers, or USDA-inspected beef感到困惑。律师们也非常熟悉ADA、DOJ、UCC 和 USC 等缩写词。

但专家们总喜欢炖一锅字母汤,别人却难以下咽。他们还没学会如何用简明英语写作。缩写对他们而言确实是捷径,但对读者而言是天堑。在滥用缩写方面,环境法律师是最严重的违规者之一。在环境法中,常可以看到这类讨论:small-quantity handlers of universal wastes被称为SQHUW(形式上是单数,但通常意义上是复数!),large-quantity handlers被称为LQHUW(同样是复数意义),conditionally exempt small-quantity generators被称为CESQGs(形式和意义上都是复数)。然后,不知不觉中,你会读到“SQHUW和CESQGs的要求相似”和“SQHUW和LQHUW的区别在于任一时刻现场积累的废物量”。就在你快要掌握这些缩写时,又会看到“SQHUW handlers”和“LQHUW handlers”这样的缩写(这些短语当然是多余的)。最后,当上述缩写与RCRA、CERCLA和FIFRA这类法规的缩写混在一起时,你会怀疑自己在读天书。

请看下面这段一字不差的文字(只改动了姓名),摘自一家大型律师事务所提交的即决判决(summary-judgment)答辩书:Plaintiff Valhalla Imports, Inc. (“VII”) is correct in pointing out that Maine Casualty Corporation (“MCC”) was represented at the voluntary settlement conference (“VSC”) by Matthew Tabak, a claims representative. Tabak attended the VSC as MCC’s claims representative handling Grosse’s claim against the Randall County Water District (“RCWD”), which was listed as an additional insured under MCC’s insurance policy. MCC simply was not involved in the worker’s compensation (“WC”) proceeding, had no responsibility for that proceeding, nor any duty in regard to the settlement of that proceeding, including the settlement of the serious and willful (“S&W”) application. Rather, MCC’s involvement in the facts giving rise to the action was limited to the following: MCC agreed to defend and indemnify (1) the RCWD under the insurance policy against Grosse’s civil claims, and (2) VII against RCWD’s cross-complaint. When Tabak contributed the aggregate limit of the MCC policy at the VSC, MCC did all it could do or was required to do to promote settlement. 拒绝那种自以为是的晦涩。如果你足够关注读者的便利,就会把想法变为简明的文字,让更多读者(甚至是更多法律读者)能够理解。与刚才引用的例子不同,你可以像一名优秀的记者那样写作。如果读者已经读了Valhalla的全称,那就要相信他们能记住。你可以这样写:Plaintiff Valhalla Imports correctly points out that Maine Casualty was represented at the voluntary settlement conference by Matthew Tabak, a claims representative. Tabak attended the conference as the company’s claims representative. He was handling Grosse’s claim against the Randall County Water District, which was listed as an additional insured on the Maine Casualty policy. But the company was not involved in the worker’s compensation proceeding, had no responsibility for that proceeding, and had no duties in any of the settlement discussions in that proceeding. Rather, Maine Casualty’s involvement was limited to the following: it agreed to defend and indemnify (1) the Water District under the insurance policy against Grosse’s civil claims and (2) Valhalla against the Water District’s cross-complaint. When Tabak contributed the aggregate limit of the insurance policy at the voluntary settlement conference, Maine Casualty did all it was required to do to promote settlement.

练习

基础练习
重写以下段落,去掉缩写。

The statement of the procedural history of this matter, as stated in the Appellant’s brief, is essentially correct. The claimant, Keith W. Hillman (hereinafter “Hillman”), filed his claim for benefits from the Criminal Injuries Compensation Fund, Va. Code §§ 19.2– 368.1 et seq., on July 27, 2020. His claim was denied by the Director of the Division of Crime Victims’ Compensation (hereinafter “the Director”) on August 27, 2020, because his conduct contributed to the infliction of his injury and because he had failed to cooperate with law enforcement. On December 20, 2020, Hillman requested a review of the denial of benefits. On April 8, 2021, Hillman was given an opportunity for an evidentiary hearing before a deputy commissioner pursuant to Administrative Bulletin No. 25, attached hereto as Addendum A (hereinafter “Add. A”).

中级练习
找一份一开始就有条不紊地界定各方的动议或辩护状。如果你是写作小组或班级的一员,可以分发一份前两页的副本。准备好讨论你是否认为这些定义有任何作用。

在法律期刊中找到一段包含过多缩略语的文章。挑出一段,打出来(注明出处),复制,然后修改,尽量减少缩略语,同时避免重复累赘的短语。如果你是写作小组或写作班的一员,将你的前后版本分发给每位同事。

高级练习
在一本书或一篇文章中,找出10到20 个缩略词。在一页纸上,把这些缩略词连同它们的含义一并列出。如果你是写作小组或班级的一员,给每位同事分发一份,并准备好讨论你认为(1)缩略语节省了专家之间交流的时间,(2)它们妨碍了普通读者的理解,以及(3)让更多人理解这个领域是可取或可行的。

在有关有效写作的文献中,找到两个讨论缩略语使用的资料。提炼出他们的指导意见,并就你的发现写一份一页纸的报告。如果你是写作小组或写作班的一员,给每位同事分发一份报告。

原则十八的小结

  • 省略对显而易见之名称的括号解释:首次提到Marvin Gearhart后,直接在下次使用Gearhart;
  • 仅在以下两种情况下使用括号式缩写:(1)全名较长且替换后听起来自然的简称;或(2)两个或多个当事人全名相似到会混淆的程度;
  • 避免使用诸如hereinafter和hereinafter referred to as之类的无意义法律术语。只需要用括号——且最好别用引号;
  • 对你自己的文章,培养对不常见缩写的一些警惕。优先使用真实的词语;
  • 请理解判断某个缩写合适与否的标准不在于专家,而在于优秀的一般读者;
  • 如果你在犹豫是否用简称,问问自己一个专业的记者会怎么做。

原则十九

原则十九:让你的文章活泼、生动,且有趣。
(§ 19. Make it snappy, vivid, and interesting.)

要保持读者的注意力,你的文章需要具备三个特质:(1)具体;(2)生动的描写;(3)有具体行动的人物。有些题材比其他题材更能吸引读者注意,但每个题材都有让人厌烦的潜力。每个题材都需要一些工作和技巧来吸引读者关注。如果失去了读者的注意力,你的文字就毫无意义。

解释事物需要叙事技巧。几乎任何事情的叙述都可以戏剧化。表达观点方式至关重要。含糊其辞会失去读者的注意力。请看下表编辑前后的区别。

叙事风格编辑(前后)

别这样 要这样
Artificial Intelligence directly resulted in the displacement of the employee from the optimal position of employment that she had long sought. Briana Thompson lost her dream job to artificial intelligence.
Plaintiff, preparing to attend a sporting event on the campus of an institution of higher learning, suffered injuries when an unsecured gate came into contact with a lower extremity. Cheryl Talika, a university sophomore, went to an on-campus football game. As she stood at the stadium’s entrance, a metal gate fell on her, shattering her right femur.
Within the United States, the rate of subjection of criminal defendants to capital punishment has accelerated precipitately year on year since the Supreme Court, in 1976, deemed such punishment worthy of constitutional reinstatement, and the nation has implemented such punishment against an increasing number of persons during each of the preceding five years in comparison with any annual period of time since 1955. Since the Supreme Court reinstated the death penalty in 1976, more and more people have been executed each year— in fact, more during each of the past five years than at any time since 1955.
The operation in question consisted in the removal of a considerable quantity of scar tissue from the palm of the plaintiff’s right hand and the grafting of skin taken from the plaintiff’s chest in place thereof. The scar tissue was the result of a severe burn caused by contact with an electric wire, which the plaintiff received about nine years before the time of the transactions here involved. George Hawkins burned the palm of his right hand on an electric wire. Nine years later, Dr. Edward McGee removed the scar tissue and grafted skin from Hawkins’s chest onto his palm.
你会注意到,后者更短,这也提醒你简洁的重要性(参见原则五)。冗词使人生厌。

不必要的抽象亦是如此。因此,无论何时写作,都尽量将你所说的内容转化为你可以想象具体事例的语句。但是,如果你把无关之事写得生动,或生动形象对你的立场不利,那么请重新考虑你的方法。例如,若你在描述一起谋杀案,而你的委托人是被指控的凶手,那么可能要更抽象一点。

让我们重申原则十七中带过的一笔——它对生动性至关重要。在你接受法学教育的过程中,一定听人说过,你该直呼委托人的名字,但要用一些客体化的词称呼对手。如果你代表原告Melvin Johnson,你就该说Johnson(代表原告)和Defendant(代表他起诉的公司)。但如果你代表的是被告公司,你就应该说Eagleton(代表Eagleton公司)和Plaintiff(代表Melvin Johnson)。这就是所谓的“将客户人格化,将对手客体化(personalize your client and depersonalize the opponent)”。这种建议不仅是简化:它显然是带有偏见的。此外,如果你的对手做了坏事,在读者的记忆中,这些行为会和Johnson或Eagleton这样的名字联系起来。给一方贴上程序法的标签只会让文章不那么吸引人——而且可能会让你看起来不够可靠。

且慢!在一本简明写作的书中介绍故作姿态(Tendentious)?我们必须面对简明语言下一个看似矛盾的问题:简明是否意味着只能用普通的词语?当然不是!好的文风要选择能吸引读者注意力的词语。的确,你不该用牵强附会的术语,但也无需认为“倾向性”这样的中间词是禁用的。简明语言并非反对聪慧。积累词汇量,但坚持用最简单的词语来恰当传递你的信息。如果有些词语不常见,但读者熟悉,使用它们也无伤大雅。

练习

基础练习
将这些句子中的斜体字换成更简短、更明快的措辞。
  • Jefferson will incur the expense of production of alternative elements as it deems appropriate.
  • Upon the occurrence of a material breach of this section, this agreement will terminate without the need for either party to take any further action.
  • “Business Day” means any day of any week other than a Saturday, Sunday, or legal holiday in the State of Maine.
  • The Provider will be responsible for the payment of the costs of prescription and nonprescription drugs.

中级练习
在一篇法律评论中,找到一段枯燥的文字(至少100字),用本节介绍的方法使其变得生动有趣。将其打出来,提供引文,并进行修改,使其更有趣。如果你属于一个写作小组或班级,给每位同事分发一份副本。

高级练习
在一份2020年后的司法意见书中,找出一段枯燥乏味的文字(至少100字),使用本节所述的方法使其变得生动有趣。将其打印出来,提供引文,并进行修改,使其更有趣。如果你属于写作小组或班级,请给每位同事分发一份副本。

原则十九的小结

  • 培养你让读者无聊的恐惧。尽量让你的文章简洁明快;
  • 当你阅读你所写的内容时,看看能否使之更生动;
  • 记住你对一个想法的首次表达大概率不是最佳的;
  • 尝试写下读者可以想象你在说什么的内容;
  • 尝试用众所周知但很少见的词。

原则二十

原则二十:成为友爱的理性之声。让你写的一切都可以言说。
(§ 20. Be a companionable voice of reason. Make everything you write speakable.)

你必须培养一个好的写作腔调。理想情况下,你需要听起来很明智、脚踏实地、冷静、公正,并尽可能坦诚——但有需要时应适当委婉。你的目标是在正确之处用正确之词。你寻求在正确之时说正确之事。这些都涉及判断,也是你必须努力的事情。

作为倡导者,你的目标是传递信念。与此同时,你必须诉诸理性——尤其是你给法官写作时。法官专业地致力于理性。这是他们的骄傲。他们不会、也不该被下列方式说服:反对者毫无根据的断言或诡计式的愤慨;对反对者论点毫无根据的总结,并声称这些论点十分虚假、在很多层面都错得离谱、毫无道德;或不加批判地使用大量结论性副词与形容词。如果你认为一个论点是clearly, patently, totally improper, meritless和wrong,请用具体的术语来说明。你的反应可能有情绪化的成分,但它必须经过调节才有效。夸大其词的描述往往会适得其反。它们会减损你可能有的优势。然而,这类写作仍然很普遍。

考虑下例对中止的反对意见。它是由一名原告提出的,该原告曾因盗窃和挪用公款而被诉。被告提出动议,要中止诉讼程序,直到另个法院的相关诉讼能被解决。在反对意见中,原告(他不明智地使用了Plaintiff和Defendant这两个术语——见原则十七)以这么几句话开头:The Defendant’s Motion to Stay is nothing but a complete and utter distraction. On the merits, the Defendant surely faces multiple probable rejections of its defenses by this Honorable Court. Diverting attention away from the merits, Defendant’s frivolous Renewed Motion to Stay disingenuously invites the Court outright to abdicate its duty to the public and instead to bless the Defendant’s lawless usurpation of Plaintiff’s property. The Court should decline this repulsive invitation to perpetuate the travesty of Defendant’s malfeasance. 这说明了什么?除了“我们不同意,我们非常沮丧”外,没什么重要内容。这里没有实质内容。作者犯了一个基本错误,即假设读者已经认可他了。你永远不该这么认为。

相较之下,一个有效的法律写手的语气是不躁动、坚定、明确、礼貌、直率和真诚的。优雅的语气总是伴随着优雅的写作;糟糕的语气和糟糕的文笔也是分不开的。

以下是四个基本准则:
(1)避免在激动或生气时写作;
(2)当你犯了错误时,不要推卸责任;
(3)不要对你的读者发脾气,或暗示你的读者不够细心或公允;
(4)不要坚持认为你的读者是错的、误解你或脑子不清楚。

如果你打算暗示你的读者是一个笨蛋或傻瓜,那你就是在讽刺,必将撞到南墙。相反,要保持专业。表明你能控制自己的想法和感受,并对它们感到满意。

理性之声所做的一件事就是预测和处理问题,因为它们会自然地出现在读者脑海中(参见原则三十)。当你阅读付费新闻时,这种体验是很常见的:在读一段话时,会想到一个问题。然后,你读下一句或一段话时,它正在处理那个问题。就好像作者读懂你的心思一样。实际呢?作者从你的角度思考了问题,预见了你的疑问,并写得像和你对话一样。

作者已经理解了你作为读者的样子。你很聪明、通情达理,但可能对写作的主题欠了些了解。作者已经做到了你在写作时应寻求的状态:成为理性的伴侣。风度翩翩,毫不呆板。

最好的方法通常是放松和自然。这种语气表明了自信,即你对自己和笔下之事感到满意。值得记住的是,所有语言的主要吸引力都是对耳朵的吸引力。好的写作就是语言的提升与润色。

对于法律读者来说,没有什么比作家直接与你交谈的感觉更令人愉悦的了——聪明人对另个聪明人。这很不寻常,足以令人耳目一新。请看下例,这是纽约的查尔斯·杜威·科尔(Charles Dewey Cole Jr.)向联邦法院提交的一份法律备忘录的开场白:

image.png 放松的语气,部分是通过缩写(contraction,译者注:这里指将did not缩写为didn’t)实现的,显出自信。简写的重点不是尽可能地使用,而是自然地使用。像代词一样,它们使文档更可读:“像你说话般写作(Write as You Talk)是公认的可读性写作规则——在英语中,最显眼和最便捷的方式是用缩写。”一项同行评议的研究证实了这一点:它发现频繁地缩写可以提高可读性。此项建议不仅适用于简报,也适用于合同、规则和其他法律文件。

注意:在你有些经验或资历之前,可能不允许使用大量的缩写。你的工作情况会影响你的方法。如果你处于初级职位,可能需要等一段时间。我两本书的合著者,已故的大法官安东尼·斯卡利亚(Antonin Scalia)不赞成缩写,这让我感到非常惊讶。尽管在我们的第一本书中,我们自始至终都这么用(他对我的风格做出了让步),但在我们的第二本书中,我们投了弃权票。你可能有一位对缩写有同样厌恶的带教。但你可能会指出,近年来,大多数现任最高法院大法官都使用缩写(译者注:这类带教很常见)。

自然风格的其他特征是什么?

一种是用第一人称和第二人称代词——尤其是we和you——而不是第三方人称,如resident或mortgagor或vendee(见原则十七)。读者对直接和他们交谈的文本更加投入。例如,美国空军多年前就开始用第二人称引用来补救其指令集中不自然、令人费解的语言问题。为了将申诉程序翻译成通俗易懂的英语,修订人员使用了你,而非雇员。有一句话原本是这样写的:If the employee feels that an interview with the immediate supervisor would be unsatisfactory, he or his representative may, in the first instance, present his grievance to the next supervisor in line. 这句话用人称代词you会更清晰:If you feel that your supervisor will not handle your case fairly, you may go directly to your supervisor’s supervisor. 总而言之,当你直接向读者说话时,他们更容易看到文本如何适用于他们。

另一种是以And、But和So开头的句子——尤其是But。你一直这么说。优秀的作家通常会在书上这么写——大概有10%的时间。但法律作家常常陷入更严肃的开场,如Similarly, However, Consequently和Inasmuch as。尝试用更快、更具对话性的联结词来替代这些沉重的联结词。

这是一个测试自然性的好方法:如果你不愿意念出来,那就不要写出来。如果你给人真挚、诚实和可信的印象,你的写作就会更具说服力。你的文字也会更朴素,风格更加轻快,文章让人难忘。大声朗读你的文章,看看你是否会按你写作的方式说话。并试试你计算机的朗读功能。

练习

基础练习
修改这些段落以消除不节制和夸张。让语气更理性。
  • Although Burgess Company nonsensically argues that removal to federal court was beyond the pale, this utterly meritless argument finds absolutely no support in law or in fact.
  • Jantzen’s baseless waiver claims blithely ignore all the filings in which Bertell’s arguments were incontestably and undeniably preserved.
  • Ms. Buenovo claims to be the common-law wife of Marquess, but her supposed “proof” cannot possibly withstand even the barest scrutiny by any sensible decision-maker.

中级练习
在法律评论中,找到一个让你觉得特别难以形容的长句或一个短到中等的段落。输入它,提供引文,并列出一份项目符号列表,列出你认为难以大声朗读的原因。如果你属于写作小组或班级,请向每位同事分发一份副本。

高级练习
在法院的网站上,找到一个包含无节制段落的简报示例——越离谱越好。重写一段至少100字的段落,通过淡化它来使其更具说服力。如果你是写作小组或班级的一员,请向每位同事分发一份前后版本的副本。准备好讨论你的编辑。

原则二十的小结

  • 做理性之声:成为一个聪明、踏实的分析师,不浪费读者时间,采用可辩护的立场、避免情绪化、仔细解决问题;
  • 如果你工作环境允许,在文章中用常见的缩写(如won’t, don’t, shouldn’t等,但不要用would’ve和could’ve);
  • 在代词明晰时用代词;
  • 句子开头优先使用单音节的连接词(如And, But, So),而非多音节词(如Additionally, However, Accordingly);
  • 注意不要用其他会让文章变得压抑的连接词(如Similarly, Consequently, Inasmuch as等);
  • 通过大声朗读来测试你的文章,问问自己是否会这么说话。如果不会,就修改。

未完待续,更多文章参见:

关于第二部分(上),参见:《简洁法律英语写作(第三版)》第二部分(上)
关于第二部分(中),参见:《简洁法律英语写作(第三版)》第二部分(中)
关于第二部分(下),参见:《简洁法律英语写作(第三版)》第二部分(下)
关于英文标点,参见:《英文标点符号用法重述》


* ^ Bryan A. Garner是法律语言学、法律写作的专家,也是Black’s Law Dictionary(《布莱克法律词典》)的主编者。本书第一版有中译本,为缪庆庆老师所译的《平易英文法律写作教程》,由北京大学出版社于2008年出版。“法律竞赛”翻译的是第三版的部分内容,以供读者对照参考。

** ^ 王硕:中国政法大学硕士研究生;
陈心悦:山东大学威海校区本科生;
许新冉:中国社会科学院大学硕士研究生。


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